People in the Long House

This article â€Å"People of the Long House† is about the life of the Iroquois people. These people are very interesting; they were independent and very smart. They had a remarkable form of a government. Their lives were good, but of course like everyone else in this world they were not perfect. They made really bad decisions and tried to solve them by war. This is never a good idea. The men and woman were rated differently than what you would expect.These three men came into the Iroquois' lives and changed a lot of things. The way Iroquois lived was very different from history ever. The Iroquois have five nations, basically what we call states. They are the Mohawk, Cayuga, Seneca, Oneida and Onondaga. They lived a matrilineal society, which means that their descent was trace through their mother. The mothers were the leaders of their families. The men were in charge of the government. The men thought their Job as most important, but the women had a bigger role.They work on th e farm harvesting crops, for the food that feeds their families. The Iroquois life as a man was not all that good. Each nation had ten men stand up for them creating laws. They discussion the laws and listen carefully to each. Men are very good at persuading their point and getting what they want. They make a unanimous decision. When they don't agree on the law they want they fight. Fights are terrible rounds of anger and revenge. Some warriors practiced cannibalism. They loud throw their enemies into a pot and eat them.The Iroquois life as a woman was tough; they had a lot of work. Women were the head of their family clan. Women were much more respected during this time period. The men depend on the woman for their food. Woman did all the hard work of harvesting plants and sometimes hunting or gathering other foods. The woman also voted on the men that went into the government. The women were the most important part of the Iroquois people. The three men that entered the Iroquois' l ives were good and bad.Two men who were known as being good and harmless were Degradedly and Hiawatha. The third man was a man named Today who was known as being very evil and so horrible. Hiawatha was sick of all the killing and the cannibalism. Hiawatha spoke of peace. He wanted to end the bloody wars, but the terrible Today opposed him. People of was so furious that he killed Hiawatha three daughters. Hiawatha was devastated, but he didn't give up. He started a unity to have peaceful tribes of Iroquois. Hiawatha was an amazing speaker everyone was on his side.Hiawatha eventually converted Today to be peaceful. After that life was good for the Iroquois people. Most of things happened in the 16 century, but no one knows for sure when Today took over. What we do know is that it was not to long the first Europeans came to the land of the People of the long Houses. No one knew what was going to come out of this world. The Iroquois thinking they were the most powerful. The Europeans th ought they were even more powerfully until they realized there was another side of the world China and Japan

Title Barchester Towers

Allow me to quote Dr. Grantly’s statement on honest men squabbling for money. This is unfortunate since in the light of this question and in reference to the context of the basis of the question in question, the squabble for money and power involves men of God. Church men who are believed by many people and more especially the clergy’s converts to be people of virtue and honest. The contrary is that, they are the ones involved in this conflict of the struggle to ascend to the leadership of the diocese in question.I totally concor with Dr.  Grantly’s opinion and so as Trollope’s endorsement. The squabble amongst the clergy men in the Church bestrays the very trust bestowed to men of Church by the society. The Church should be the center of peace order and honesty. Anything short of this is the very opposite of the way things should happen. OTHER AMBITIONS Apart from the squabbling for the Church leadership, there is also rivalry for the control of Hirams hospital. The ambitions Mr. Hope does not only run much of the proudies official businesses but also aspire to take over the Hirams hospital.This is a show of selfishness since he wants to grab anything at his disposal. He further goes ahead to Marry not necessarily to have a family but the rich lady who will bring wealth to him. This is what we call falling in love in disguise for his love with lady he married lands him into scandals until his undoing restores peace among the people in the diocese. The ambition is to marry someone is encouraged if it is not motivated by other uteria motives. The ambition of ascending to power is also positive since if the world lacked ambition people, it would not produce its leaders.Any one will approve of positive ambition. Grantly’s ambition to take over leadership of the Church is acceptable before the eyes of people who are for the truth and justice. The appointment of proudies is a disappointment to the people who are for the truth. Th e war of ideas between Mr. Slope and his rivals on who has the right to run Hirams hospital is an act of selfishness and shame in the Church and the society as a whole. In this case who is who is not what matters, what matters is who is just. THE HONEST MANThe honest man in the Barchester tower is Archdeacon Grantly . According to Trollope, he is the person who by the virtue of the tradition of the church, he is the heir and the next to take over the leadership of the diocese if everything were to go as stipulated by the law of the Church. The contrast comes when Mr. Proudies is brought in by the Government to ran the affairs of the Church. It is also sad to learn that there are other people who control the state of affairs in the Church and he is only there as a rubber stamp.The above example is one of the many leaders in the world who own their political offices not because the quality to own or ran them but because they are puppets of some well connected power brokers. A good exa mple are Mr. Slope and Mrs. Proudie. Mr. Proudie is unlikely to deliver since his service must be directed to his proxys, political God fathers and mother. Another negative aspect of this kind of a leader is that, he might be installed in an office which he is not experienced to run which might inhabit. This delivery of required of him by the society concerned.Honest people are the least popular with the mass. This is because he may not agree with the view of the majority behavioural aspect that might make him popular. This very sad, since Grantly should have been the right choice for the post of the Bishop but he lost it to proudie since he was not well connected with the politicians. This could have been simply due to his stand on justice and being fair to all which is what the corrupt people would not accept. Then if this is the case, do we allow corrupt people control and rule the world? However, we cannot give all the credit to Mr.Grantly since his own weakness. As a son of Bis hop he grew up with the opinion that he has the monopoly of knowledge as pertains to a running of church affairs, now that he is a heir to his father Bishop his strong opinion are unbending attitude makes him a conservative and a figure representing the Church traditions. He fails to understand world keeps on changing and she should accept to change with it, and that he lived in a society that is dynamic. For that reason he is likely to fall out with people who have modern ideas like Mr.Slope and the sister in- law Eleanor Bold. CHARACTER The character of Mr. Slope and Mr. Arabins desires for the worldly comforts is portrayed negatively. Meangiful comfort can only be realized once someone acquires wealth out of his own sweating. Any short cut or unwanted inheritance as of Eleanor’s case does not guarantee comfort since the consequences haunts the person concern since ones conscience will also remind the person concerned of the unfair ways he dreprived the person of his rights e. g. inheritance. How ever, Mr. Hardings refusal to take over of the deanery is reasonable.This is because being a righteous person would not accept to the associated with corrupt people in the Church. He is also aware of the external political forces running the Church and as such he fears to be compelled to do what he knows its not right before the eyes of God and men. So the relationship between the honest and the wicked is bad as expected. There is no way a honest person will share and agree with the wicked. However we can not deny the fact Dr. Hardings is the Father – in – law to Mr. Grantly and there is no doubt that he shares the same segment with his son in – law Mr. Grantly.We can say that he is also a conservative. We can not also rule out his opposition to the marriage of his daughter Eleanor Bold to Mr. Slope. The fact that Mr. Slope is a close associate of Mr. Proudie who is now the current Bishop and Mrs. Proudie whom they share ideas and house, it is apparent that the two parties have different attitudes towards each other. Grantly’s attitudes towards Eleanor Bold his sister in –law and Mr. Slope are extreme and rigid. He is a one man who would not admit mistakes and he looks at other people as being on the wrong him right. That is why on the other hand Mr.Slope and his associates regard Mr. Grantly as old , out dated old fashioned conservative The honest person will want to use a clear way that would be approved by the men of justice. A wicked person on the contrary, cares not what people would think or say about him but its achievements. It doesn’t matter to him that in the course of action towards the achievements of its goals, someone was hurt on the way or not provided he achieves what he wanted. That’s why the likely of Grantly and other honest people in the church do feature much in the struggle for possession of power.That’s why the author Trollope write to side with Mr. Grant. Pe ople like Mr. Slope, Mr. Arabin are driven by a burning desire of the worldly posses for the worldly possession and comforts, and that’s why their ends is a big disgrace to them and their families. A good name is better than wealth something they fail to understand and history will judge them. The white people say that â€Å" Power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely† so the coming in of the politicians in the said squabble for money in the Church not only indoctrinate the politicians but also the church men like Mr.Slope. Charlotte, Stanhope and Madeleine Neroni’s to Bertie’s situation is another very amusing act of people who are acting in the middle of a big controversy . The two characters are close associates of Bertie yet their approach to us are problems leaves a lot to be desired. CONCLUSION In relation to the Church situation today and in reference to the character mentioned earlier in the analysis, it is apparent that the uprightness is lacking the Church and the struggle for power has killed the very trust the church used to enjoy in the past .There are a few honest men and women in Church, but the majority are people out to achieve their ambitions gains. Let the Church stands its ground and route not this vice if it hopes to restore its lost Glory. The government also should keep off the affairs of the Church. A church is a define place with the obligation of providing for refuge and consolation of the heartbroken but not a den of thieves as Jesus puts it when he met people doing business in the Solomon’s temple in Jesuralem. Opportunists should also not seek their lack in the Church as with some of the clergy men today.However when the old fashioned clergy men like Mr. Grantly becomes so rigid with the old ideas, conflicts in the Church from the young generation are eminent . So anything good pertaining to the history and the tradition of the Church should be passed on to the new generation with cauti on and wisdom. Therefore it is seems apparent that somehow Mr. Grantly and the like in the Church should seek for dialogue if the Church glory has to be maintained. Such weaknesses as with the clergy today gives room to the young invading the church and overturning the tablesThey go to work in the Church not with a call to serve the people of God but to earn for their living just like people in any other business. Such people have destroyed the good reputation of the Church. The government and politicians should be warned not poke their noses in the Church affairs least God will punish them for interfering with and destroying the directions and good name of the Church. The two can’t be married let the church be left to the clergy and politics and to the politicians. WORK CITED. ? Barchester Towers by Trollope 1847 ? The writers collections experience

Policy paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Vertical Integration Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Vertical Integration Strategy - Essay Example In adapting its strategies to market conditions, Smithfield has taken a cost leadership strategy, combined it with a differentiation strategy (lean pork) where it has a proprietary advantage, and made an efficient value chain as the case study demonstrates (Thompson, Strickland, & Gamble, 2008, p. C-429). As a leader in the concept of bringing efficiency to vertical integration, the company has combined farming, feeding, processing, and distribution into an award-winning, highly profitable operation. The next logical step for the company is to expand its operations to bring more capacity and higher profitability. The problem is that community in which it seeks to build does not want any more pig farms for a host of reasons; not the least of which is the natural but noxious result of raising livestock. In terms of the ethical and socially responsible business practices, the company has some specific issues. One of these is that in some ways, management seems to be out of touch with th e real issues. One of the environmental efforts touted by the organization is its contribution to wetlands recovery, as well as recycling cardboard. These are worthy things to do, certainly, but the company position on these issues is not relevant to the more pressing issues it is facing. As one author notes, to â€Å"address ethics problems, managers first have to recognize that conflicts of interest exist† (Vickers, 2005, p. 26). With all due respect to the organization, touting its recycling efforts and energy conservation efforts is insufficient. Under a strict utilitarian analysis, the company has no real moral duty and fairs relatively well with the argument that its actions benefit more people (international food supplier, working to reduce fat in the American diet) than those few North Carolina residents who are hurt by the negative side effects of foul odor or some pollution in the water. If a deontological

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Health Beliefs of Christian Science Followers - Research Paper Example In the prior twenty-five years, a resurgence of interest in the spiritual dimensions of human health has given reason and foundation to the thought that the preference of medical science over that of religion may be weakening. Christian Science was founded in 1866 and the founder later founded the Church of Christ, Scientist (Singh, 2009). A 25-year-old pregnant female arrives at the emergency department, accompanied by her husband, with complaints of severe pains and abdominal cramps. Further examination by the physician discovers that she is suffering from an ectopic pregnancy. The diagnosis and plan of care are explained to the patient by the physician. The proposed treatment plan includes the insertion of an IV, pain intervention through the use of medication and surgical intervention. Surgery will remove the developing cells which could potentiate a need for the administration of blood products and IV antibiotics. The couple refuses surgery by their religion and explains that they are Christian Science followers. The physician is insistent and explains ectopic pregnancy and the in inherent risks and cautions that the surgery must take place within the hour. The physician explains fully the implications of an ectopic pregnancy. An ectopic pregnancy develops outside of the uterus and the embryo implants in an area other than where it should, which is the endometrial layer of the uterus. The travel of the embryo through the fallopian tubes is altered in some way in these pregnancies. Up to 98% of these pregnancies develop in the fallopian tubes (Mcqueen, 2011, p 50). It is a leading cause of first-trimester mortality.An ectopic pregnancy is usually not capable of survival through the pregnancy can grow large enough to rupture the area that it is in which can cause severe and heavy bleeding which endangers the life of the mother. These pregnancies damage the fallopian tubes and must be detected and treated early to prevent severe bleeding. One that has ruptured will bleed slowly into the abdomen and is considered a medical emergency.

Diamond Age analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Diamond Age analysis - Essay Example iction texts, technology takes a central part, and the conflicts arising from how humankind use technology and the consequences, as well as creation of futuristic technology, is common. The observation that science fiction has two dimensions in its nature will form the basis of the analysis of the text The Diamond Age, from this point of view. These two dimensions are usually the world of fantasy and the world of reality. Neal Stephenson, the author of this text, achieves the capturing of these two dimensions. The first dimension that concerns the world of fantasy focuses on the learning of essential concepts valuable for the survival of individuals in the Victorian society. A young girl of a lower tribe class learns with the Young Lady’s Primer with the objective of surviving in this society. The Young Lady’s Primer, however, was not initially designed for the use by the people it is being used by but had rather been designed for Finkle-McGraw’s granddaughter, Elizabeth. Its use by other people resulted from the Engineer’s fault. Hackworth, the engineer of the Young Lady’s Primer, decides to have a copy for his daughter named Fiona, which is not as agreed between him and the ‘Equity Lord’. There are several copies of it further after it is stolen ending up in with Nell which forces Hackworth to make a third copy after losing the other one. This explains how Nell gets the Young Lady’s Primer, which essentially the beginning of the unf olding of major events in the text. The text The Diamond Age presents a conflict in which Hackworth is caught up in a dilemma. This is when he opposes the employment of the Seed. He has fears the consequences which would occur because of its wrong usage if its use is allowed to the general population. Typically this conflict exists concerning the employment of the some of the technology that exists in the contemporary world. There could be great dangers associated with the use of certain technologies which means

Politics by Aristotle Mere Life and Good Life Essay

Politics by Aristotle Mere Life and Good Life - Essay Example According to Aristotle, freedom is affected by the constrains that arises in our normal life. On the other hand good life is positive in one way as it empowers the youth to be in a position to take leadership roles and accept to be ruled. Through this, we can be in a position to give our priorities right or wrong. According to Aristotle, good life comprises varied ideals in its ethical concerns. In philosophy, there is broad attachment of ethical virtues to external produce. What affects the public people’s life, are the basic ethical virtues. These include ambition, and courage. In achieving these virtues, then it calls for need to be politically active and take political roles and getting involved in court proceedings. External goods refers to useful factors that accompany ethical virtues like power, honor and wealth. The best source of happiness in human beings is friends and family members (Aristotle 23). Aristotle defines politics in various scopes of participation in politics. Good life does not necessarily root from citizenship. To maintain a good life, one needs to create an atmosphere that is politically stable. A politically stable community is a community that has life and property security. In life, if one is denied or has no access to political nature, then it implies that you are staying alone or staying in a community that does not recognize importance of the politics in life (Aristotle 76). Human beings differ and some may decide to live a political society despite the law and order and moral law that the society provides and the opportunity that is engaged in participating in politics. Household arises out of the essential natural instincts that demands reproduction and material survival. This is because Aristotle did not put more emphasis in politics and he does not relegate household values. Household is not confiding to the standards of meeting the natural instincts. Thus for a household to be

Exploring a Communicative Event in Saudi Lingua Culture Essay

Exploring a Communicative Event in Saudi Lingua Culture - Essay Example In teaching aid, communication is necessary particularly when teaching people of different native languages. Event can appear in many forms. For example, real events demonstrated when a message passes through electronic media such as films or media houses. There is a set of theories analyzing communication events exist. The most essential method of communication is conversation. Human beings, therefore, communicate to share information and expand their social relationships (Seindlhofer, 2005, p.54). Most of the influential and active discussions take place through conversations. Simple talks both official and non-official and education related take place through chatting. If a CE involves two parties not knowing each other, that is strangers, there is no engagement (Seindlhofer, 2005, p.54). The success of any communication depends on understanding between the parties involved. Understanding of each other leads to an interaction between the involved parties. This essay focuses on Eng lish language as a communication tool. CE refers to â€Å"An exchange with obvious boundaries in a typically-occurring situation, where the participants have a clear role relationship† (Saville-Troike, 1989, p.107). For a language teacher to succeed, he needs be careful with the way he delivers information to his students. Successful teachers recommend thorough observations of local speakers because they engage in varying CE in order to understand each other (Saville-Troike, 1989, p.107). The teacher should have the ability to give CE models after first learning the native speakers’ language (Saville-Troike, 1989, p.107). For effective language teaching, the teacher needs to have the skill to know and speak other languages. Lingua franca as a language This refers to a communication tool used by a group of people from different native origins to communicate. Lingua Francas form the third mode of communication language from the original languages of the communicating sid es (Helena, 2011). Studies show that a lingua franca language may turn to be the common language if it widely spreads in an area. A good example of a lingua franca language is pidgin. Pidgin combines different vocabularies of native languages (Helena, 2011). The only distinction between lingua franca and pidgin is that members of the same native language do not speak pidgin but instead speak their native language. Pidgin does not have any original speakers. Modern Lingua Francas In the current society, global communication has succeeded due to development of lingua francas. There are a number of recognized communication languages in different regions. For example, the official languages recognized by United Nations (UN) include Arabic, Chinese, English, Spanish and French. (Fernandez-Cardenas & Silveyra-De La Garza, 2010). This shows how lingua franca languages have developed to international recognition. Several developments of pidgin are evident as regular contacts between differe nt people broaden. However, most of the pidgins lack verbs, articles and nouns, their use has spread since they encourage communication between parties. Components of Communication Event (CE) In order to further, explore communication events, Saville-Troike 1989, p. 107 explained the components of CE. Some of these components include the event type, the setting and purpose of the events. Other components are function setting of different happenings, appearance and key participants. Manner in this case refers to message form and content. Guidelines include

When Budget Cuts Threaten Public Safety Assignment

When Budget Cuts Threaten Public Safety - Assignment Example Almost nobody within the corrections and law enforcement community sees the early release program as a good option. It has been characterized as everything from "not good public policy" by Vacaville Police Chief Richard Ward to "an act of insanity" by Kern County District Attorney Edward Jagels (Thompson, 2008). While the author reports on research that indicates the program will not increase the crime rate, most crime experts feel otherwise. Most people interviewed for the article expressed the opinion that if the criminal community knows that they will not be sent to prison, they will have no deterrent to committing a property crime. California is in desperate need of prison reform. The article stated that there are currently 172,000 prisoners being housed in a system that was designed for 100,000 (Thompson, 2008). Releasing just 22,000 of these inmates would allow the state to make changes in the prison and jail building program and save additional money (Thompson, 2008). While this number would not ease the current overcrowding, it may relieve what Schwarzenegger calls "the federal courts breathing down our neck" (Thompson, 2008). Thompson Thompson related the opinions of law enforcement personnel that believed there would be a marked increase in property crime if the program is enacted. Since local jails are already overcrowded, many criminals will be more willing to take their chances. Even one of the program's supporters Barry Krisberg, President of the National Council on Crime and Delinquency, expressed some reservation about turning these criminals back out on the street with no rehabilitation and no support systems (Thompson, 2008). The article pointed out that just about everyone has at least some reservations about the early release program.

The main changes facing International Businesses today Essay

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Rio Tinto Japan Essay Example for Free

Rio Tinto Japan Essay What is an important issue that your company is currently facing? My name is Dermot Vibert. I work with Rio Tinto Japan. On March 11, 2011 I was in our office when we were hit by an extremely strong earthquake. Among the many issues we faced immediately after the earthquake was what would we do on the Monday morning when we had to supposedly return to the office and recommence business. What caused this issue to arise and why is it important? Marketing The earthquake in the afternoon of March 11 was, although it struck 520 kilometers from Tokyo, it was an extremely strong one for us in Tokyo. The buildings shook severely two or three times, and then many, many times thereafter because of the aftershocks. On at least two occasions we had to go under our desks with our helmets on and literally hold on to the legs of the tables. It was that strong. The earthquake knocked out a lot of the power system, and as a result the trains were not able to function normally, and because there was not enough power as well, things like traffic lights, lights in buildings, etc. , all these things were affected. There were many unknowns such as what damage there really was in the Tokyo area, for how long would trains not be running, would there be adequate food in two or three days time, what was going to happen with fuel supply, because when we were watching on television, one of the spectacular scenes we saw was a gas terminus on fire in the Tokyo Bay area, so we had a lack of information, and as a result there were many many uncertainties. We did not know if we could go home that day or not. In the end most of us did not go home. We stayed and had to travel the next day. It just was not a situation conducive to running a business in a normal environment. Can you tell us a bit about yourself and your career path to date? My name is Dermot Vibert. I live in Japan. I have been there for 24 years. I went to university in Montreal, McGill University. I did a BA in East Asian Studies, then a MA in Geography. I then went to Japan in 1988 on the Jet Program where I worked in a high school for three years teaching English. I then entered OKI Electric and spend six and a half years in their electronic components business section, and then in 1997 December I joined Rio Tinto Japan. I have been with them ever since. Can you describe a typical work day for yourself? I will wake up perhaps at 6:00. I leave the house at 7:00. I walk to the train station, which is about an eight minute walk. Then I take an hour and a half train into Tokyo, and then I walk from the final station into our office. I will get to the office about 8:15, 8:30 perhaps. I will then work until perhaps 6:00 in the evening. Maybe two or three evenings a week I will go out with a customer and after that I will return home, so I have a pretty full week. What is your role in the company? I have a number of jobs at Rio Tinto Japan. One of them is I look after our titanium and zircon for Rio Tinto Iron Titanium in Japan and Korea. I also am manager of the president’s office for Rio Tinto Japan. I also have a role in external affairs activities for our company’s branch. Can you describe your leadership style? In general I tend to lead by example where possible, and I also try to encourage my coworkers or subordinates in a positive manner. I prefer not to use harsh criticism and I certainly do not shout. What does your organisation do and how is it different? Rio Tinto Japan has two operations. One is a buy-sell operation which is linked with our aluminum division. Then we have our service provider operation, which basically covers all of the other business units who are doing business in Japan. We facilitate business between them and our customer base here in Japan. Who buys your company products and services? Rio Tinto sells to a broad range of industries in Japan depending on the particular raw material product that we are selling. For example iron ore will go to the steel industry, coal will go to the power companies or to the steel energy, aluminum will go obviously to the automobile industry, titanium will go to the pigment industry, or the titanium sponge industry, copper goes to the smelters, salt, we also have a lot of business in Chlor Alkali side of business, so there are many industries into which we sell Rio Tinto products in Japan. Can you describe the industry within which your company competes? Rio Tinto Japan is located in Tokyo. We have 27 employees. We look after between 13 and 14 products, and Rio Tinto sells these products into dozens of industries. Can you describe the organisation of your company and why it takes this form? Rio Tinto is a publicly listed company. It is headquartered in London. We have the following business groups. We have aluminum, copper, diamonds and minerals, energy, iron ore, exploration, technology and innovation. In Japan, as we are a liaison office and a buy-sell operation we have approximately 27 staff at the moment in one location. Can you describe the flow of activities or value chain of a typical product sold by Rio Tinto? Let us take titanium feed stock. The product is mined in either South Africa, Madagascar, or Quebec. The product is then the Aluminite which is the core product. It is brought to our smelter which is either in Quebec or Richards Bay, South Africa. The product is smelted and therefore upgraded to become a slag or an upgraded slag, which basically means that the TiO2 content is a higher purity than what was the case when it was taken out of the ground in either rock form Quebec or in sand form in Madagascar or South Africa. This slag then is brought over to our market here in Japan. It is then sold to pigment makers, the majority, and also to titanium sponge makers. The pigment makers use the titanium slag to make pigment which they then sell to the panes, plastics and paper industry in particular. There is ink as well. The titanium sponge manufacturers will make sponge out of our product, and they will sell this to a number of industries including the aircraft industry, well it makes its way to the aircraft industry. It also can be found in products such as glasses, golf clubs, water desalination plants, jet engines, and various other applications. How do firms compete in this industry? Rio Tinto competes in Japan with its various natural resource products and minerals. We basically will compete in the various industries with other major mining companies on price, on relationships, on quality, on supply reliability, and various other factors. Obviously they are not always of the same importance, but usually all of these points are important.

Isolation of β-Amyrin from Plant Parts of M. barteri

Isolation of ÃŽ ²-Amyrin from Plant Parts of M. barteri ISOLATION AND BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF THE TRITERPENE Î’-AMYRIN FROM THE AERIAL PLANT PARTS OF MAESOBOTRYABARTERI(BAILL). Abstract Maesobotrya  barteri(Baill), belonging to the family EUPHORBIACEAE, is a medicinal plant growing widely in tropical Africa. The Aerial plant parts of Maesobotrya barteri (Bail) were collected fresh from Orokam, Ogbadibo local Government of Benue State, Nigeria in July, 2013. Taxonomical identification was done by Mallam Musa Abdullahi at the Herbarium unit of Biological sciences Department, ABU, Zaria, Nigeria. Pulverized aerial parts of Maesobotrya  barteri (960g) was exhaustively extracted successively using petroleum ether, chloroform, ethylacetate and methanol and concentrated in the rotary evaporator at 40oC. The ethylacetate fraction having the highest activity against test microbes from preliminary crude microbial screenings was subjected to phytochemical studies, antimicrobial analysis and column chromatography (CC). The column chromatography yielded fraction EN, which was further purified using preparative thin layer chromatography to give EN1. The structure of the isola ted compound was established using 1-D NMR and 2-D NMR spectroscopic analysis and by direct comparism with data reported in literature was confirmed to be ÃŽ ²-amyrin. The bioactivity of this compound was carried out using some clinical pathogens and the activity compared with standard drugs and this was found to be comparable with the standard drug. Keywords: Maesobotrya  barteri; Medicinal plant; bioactivity; Ethylacetate extract; ÃŽ ²-amyrin Introduction Maesobotrya sp is a variety of flowering plant belonging to the family Phyllanthaceae, or by some authors classified in Euphorbiaceae. The Euphorbiaceae plants are shrubs, trees, herbs or rarely lianas [1]. Plants of the Euphorbiaceae are known to be rich in terpenoids (69.5%) [2]. In Nigeria, the species M.barteri is under-exploited although the tree is of both medicinal and nutritional importance [3]. Maesobotrya species are used medicinally in different regions in Africa [4]. It bears succulent black-purple fruits that are edible and stain the tongue. The nutritive values of the fruits and seeds have been studied in Southern Nigeria [5]. Thus, this study aims at validating the antimicrobial effects of the aerial plant parts of Maesobotrya barteri used in traditional medicine in Orokam town of Benue State,Nigeria, as well as potent compounds that can be used as precursors for synthetic drugs. The presence of secondary metabolites in plants generally has been confirmed by [6], [7] and [8] through useful procedures and suggestions to get to targeted precursors which are of useful aids in the formulation of modern drugs. Plant Material The aerial parts of Maesobotrya barteri were collected from Orokam in Ogbadibo local government area of Benue State in the month of July, 2013. They were properly identified at the herbarium, Department of Biological Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. The whole plant was sorted, air dried under shade, segregated and pulverized by mechanically pounding them using wooden mortar and pestle. The pulverized plant material was stored away from moisture. Extraction 980.54g of the pulverized plant materials were carefully weighed and loaded into a Soxhlet extractor. It was extracted successively with Petroleum ether (60-80oC), Chloroform, Ethyl acetate (76-78oC) and Methanol by hot continuous percolation method in the Soxhlet apparatus for 72 hours respectively. Solvents used were those of JHD and general purpose reagents The extracts were concentrated in vacuo at 40oC using rotary evaporator and subjected to air drying to give dried crude extracts. Isolation The ethyl acetate extract was the most sensitive extract from the antimicrobial screening and was subjected to column chromatography (CC) for fractionation. Solvents used to run the column chromatograghy were sealed and are products JHD with 98% purity. Fifteen grams (15g) of the extract was dissolved in ethyl acetate and preadsorbed on 10.0g silica gel (qualikens 60-120 mesh). The dried pre-adsorbed extract was transferred to a mortar and ground to give a fine powder and was added at the uniform layer on top of the column. The petroleum ether descended on a horizontal line indicating that the column was well packed. A total of 105 fractions (50mls) each were initially collected using gradient elution with a solvent combination of petroleum ether and ethyl acetate, starting with 100% petroleum ether with an increasing polarity of 1% ethyl acetate. Similar fractions were pulled together based on monitoring from TLC. Fractions F20-F25 were pulled together at the ration of 8:2 and where subjected to further purification using Preparative thin layer chromatography to obtain a solid white amorphous substance which after several trails using different solvent combinations showed a single spot which was visible under the UV lamp and after spraying the TLC plate with 10% H2SO4 and oven dried for 5minutes at 60oC. The solid white amorphous substance produced was insoluble in ethyl acetate or petroleum ether but soluble in chloroform. Results and Discussion From the preliminary antimicrobial screening of the crude aerial plant parts extracts of M. barteri, ethylacetate extract exhibited the highest activity against the test microbes used via their zones of inhibition. Therefore, an activity guided isolation was undertaken. Bioactivity of Compound EN1 Pure Isolate The antimicrobial activities of compound EN1 isolated from ethylacetate extract of the aerial plant parts of M. barteri was examined and agar disc diffusion method [13] was employed for the determination of the antimicrobial activities. The pure compound was determined using some pathogenic microbes; the microbes were obtained from the department of Medical Microbiology Ahmadu Bello University Teaching- Hospital, Zaria, Nigeria. The determination of minimum inhibitory concentration was carried out using the nutrient broth susceptibility assay prepared according to the manufacturer’s instructions, as recommended by NCCLS [14]. Minimum inhibition McFarland turbidity standard scale number 0.5 was prepared to give turbid solution. Normal saline was prepared and was dispensed into test tube and the test microorganism was then inoculated into the normal saline, incubation was at 37oC for 6hrs, dilution of the microorganism in the normal was performed until the turbidity marched that of the McFarland by visual comparison at this point the microorganism had a concentration of about 1.5à Ã‚ ¥108 cfu/ml. Minimum Bactericidal and fungicidal concentration of compound EN1 was carried out to check whether the test microbes were killed or only their growth was inhibited. Mueller Hunton agars were prepared according to the manufacturer’s instruction, as recommended by NCCLS [14]. They were boiled to dissolve and were sterilized at 121oC for 15 minutes, the media were cool to 45oC and the medium (20ml) was poured in to sterile Petri dishes, the plates were covered and allowed to cool and solidify. The contents of the MIC in the serial dilution was inoculated on to the media, the media were incubated at 37oC for 24hrs for the bacteria and at 30oC for 1-7 days for fungi, after which the plate were observed for colonies growth. The MBC/MFC was the plate with lowest concentrations of the extract without colony growth. Table 2 shows the Zones of inhibition (mm) of the pure the compound EN1 from the ethyl acetate fraction which showed remarkable activity against twelve of the sixteen organisms tested. Compound EN1 could not inhibit the growth of Corynebacterium ulcerans, Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, Aspergillus fumigates, Aspergillus nigre. The various minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum Bacteriocidal concentration and fungicidal concentration (MBC/MFC) for the different microbes are as shown in Tables and the bioactivity of the aerial plant parts of M. barteri is comparable to the drugs Ciprofloxacin, Fluconazole and Fulcin used as positive controls. Table 2: Zone of inhibition of Compound EN1 against the test microorganism Test Organism Compound EN1 Ciprofloxacin Fluconazole Fulcin Staphylococus aureus 32 37 0 0 Streptococus pyogenes 30 35 0 0 Streptococcus feacalis 32 39 0 0 Corynebacteruim ulcerans 0 32 0 0 Escherichia coli 32 38 0 0 Klebsiella pneumonia 32 40 0 0 Salmonella typhi 30 42 0 0 Shigella dysenteriae 30 40 0 0 Candida albicans 0 0 35 0 Candida krusei 27 0 37 0 Candida tropicalis 0 0 32 0 Candida stellatoidea 25 0 37 0 Microsporum sp 26 0 0 38 Aspargillus fumigates 0 0 0 32 Aspargillus nigre 0 0 0 34 Trichophyton rutarum 28 0 0 38 Table 2 and 3 shows the activity of the compound EN1 which the spectroscopic analysis was proposed to be a ÃŽ ²-Amyrin or ÃŽ ²-Amyrenol, (C30H50O, 426.7 g/mol). Antimicrobial screening reported from other natural products has also confirmed the microbial properties of ÃŽ ²-Amyrin. ÃŽ ²-Amyrin was isolated from Ardisia elliptica [9], a medicinal plant used for alleviating chest pain, fever, liver poisoning and parturition complications. It was found that ÃŽ ²-Amyrin was six times as active as aspirin in inhibiting platelets aggregation. ÃŽ ²-amyrin was isolated for the first time fromLaurencia microcladia, marine algaedistributed widely in Egypt found to have antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeurginosa [10]. Table 3a: Minimum Inhibition Concentration (MIC) Test Organisms 3.12 µg/ml 6.2 µg/ml 12.5 µg/ml 25 µg/ml 50 µg/ml Concentration Staphylococus Aureus o* + Streptococus Pyogenes o* + + Streptococcus Feacalis o* + Escherichia Coli o* + Klebsiella Pneumonia o* + Salmonella Typhi o* + Shigella Dysenteria o* + Candida Krusei o* + + Candida Stellatoidea o* + + Microsporum Sp o* + + Trichophyton Rubrum o* + + KEY: = No turbidity (No growth), o* = MIC, + = Turbid (Growth) Table 3b: Minimum Bactericidal Concentration and Minimum Fungicidal Concentration (MBC/MFC) Test Organisms 3.12 µg/ml 6.2 µg/ml 12.5 µg/ml 25 µg/ml 50 µg/ml Concentration Staphylococus aureus o* + + + Streptococus pyogenes o* + + + Streptococcus feacalis o* + + + Escherichia coli o* + + + Klebsiella pneumonia o* + + Salmonella typhi o* + + + Shigella dysenteria o* + + + Candida krusei o* + + + Candida stellatoidea o* + + + + Microsporum sp o* + + + + Trichophyton rubrum o* + + + KEY: = No turbidity (No growth), o* = MBC/MFC + = Turbid (Growth) Spectra results The structure of compound EN1 was elucidated using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR), 1-DNMR and 2-DNMR and also by comparing the obtained data with already existing literature. The results obtained are as shown in the table. H1NMR: 7.2401, 5.2346, 3.2100, 3.2021, 3.1911, 3.1836, 2.3241, 2.1768, 2.1585, 2.0742, 2.0181, 2.0023, 1.9942, 1.9793, 1.9727, 1.9067, 1.9012, 1.8923, 1.8865, 1.8621, 1.8455,1.8379, 1.8227, 1.7276, 1.7067, 1.6857, 1.6669, 1.6529, 1.6353, 1.6302, 1.6127, 1.5952, 1.5890, 1.5669,1.5463, 1.5230,1.4987,1.4836,1.4667,1.4579,1.4402,1.4276,1.3730,1.3429, 1.3195, 1.2990, 1.2780, 1.2630, 1.2329,1.1813,1.1514,1.1169,1.0870, 1.0639,1.0316, 1.0195,0.9989, 0.9759, 0.9681, 0.9404, 0.9322, 0.9217, 0.9088, 0.8927, 0.8841, 0.8680, 0.8591,0.8450 0.8341 13CNMR: 137.9624, 125.9002, 79.0731, 77.2169, 77.0054, 76.7938, 55.2568, 52.7408, 47.9239, 47.5759, 42.0388, 39.5194, 39.0811, 38.8495, 38.7715, 38.6441, 37.0200, 36.7105, 33.0001, 30.6267, 29.6969, 29.3557, 28.1492, 28.0359, 27.2530, 24.2027, 23.5770, 23.3098, 21.1608, 18.3150,17.0954, 16.9846, 15.5986, 15.4777. The 13C NMR spectrum (Figure 3) showed thirty (30) major recognizable carbon signals, eight methyl groups at ÃŽ ´37.0200 (C-22), 28.0359 (C-23), 15.5986 (C-24), 15.4777 (C-25), 16.9846 (C-26), 24.2027 (C-27), 17.0954 (C-28), 28.1492 (C-29), 23.3098 (C-30) and a secondary hydroxyl bearing carbon 79.0731 at (C-3). It also showed some recognizable signals at ÃŽ ´ 125.9002 and 137.9624 ppm which is assignable to the double bond at C-12 and C-13. In addition, ten methylene groups, eight methyl groups , six quaternary carbons atoms from DEPT experiment were observed. The chemical shift at ÃŽ ´137.962, 125.9002 which are C-12 and C-13 and the consistent flow of methyl groups from C-23 to C-30 were characteristic peaks for a ÃŽ ²- Amyrin type of skeleton [11] and [12]. 1HNMR, 13C NMR and DEPTH spectra of the proposed compound ÃŽ ²-amyrin Figure1: 1HNMR Figure 2 : 13C NMR Figure 3: DEPT Table 4: Comparison of 13C NMR spectrum data of ÃŽ ²-amyrin Obtained from the Aerial parts of M. barteri with literature Carbon Position ÃŽ ´13CNM ÃŽ ´ppm ÃŽ ²-amyrin, Experimental ÃŽ ´13CNMR ÃŽ ´ppm ÃŽ ²-amyrin, Literature [12] ÃŽ ´13CNMR ÃŽ ´ppm ÃŽ ²-amyrin, Literature [11] 1 38.8495 38.7 37.3 2 27.2530 27.2 28.28 3 79.0731 79.3 71.85 4 38.7715 38.5 37.30 5 55.2568 55.1 36.81 6 18.3150 18.6 21.12 7 38.6441 32.4 42.35 8 39.5194 39.8 45.90 9 47.9239 47.6 50.18 10 36.7105 36.9 36.55 11 23.5770 23.6 24.33 12 125.9002 121.7 121.70 13 137.9624 145.2 140.81 14 42.0388 41.7 44.36 15 29.3557 26.2 26.13 16 21.1608 26.1 23.11 17 29.6969 32.6 48.48 18 47.5759 47.2 45.89 19 39.0811 46.8 39.82 20 30.6267 31.0 36.49 21 33.0001 34.7 34.00 22 37.0200 37.1 31.71 23 28.0359 28.0 29.3 24 15.5986 15.4 19.84 25 15.4777 15.4 19.10 26 16.9846 16.8 18.90 27 24.2027 25. 9 18.30 28 17.0954 28.4 19.20 29 28.1492 33.8 36.18 30 23.3098 23.7 19.42 Proposed structure EN1-(C30H50O, 426.7 g/mol) Name: ÃŽ ²-Amyrin or ÃŽ ²-Amyrenol Conclusion The isolation of ÃŽ ²-Amyrin from the aerial plant parts of M. barteri, whose bioactivity was established from this work by its zone of inhibition, is comparable to the drugs of Ciprofloxacin, Fluconazole and Fulcin. This justifies why the plant really serves as a general purpose antibiotic in traditional medicine in our society. The preliminary phytochemical screening also shows that the ethylacetate extract contains other classes of compounds that can be further isolated and tested for microbial activities and this can lead to chains of discoveries as the quest of precursors for modern drugs are continually on course.

Russias Culture and Demographics

Russias Culture and Demographics Russia Tyler A. McClellan Brother Brittan Russia has not always been what it is today. It began as many small settlements that came together to form an empire, many languages and minority languages are spoken, many religions practiced, and it is number nine in terms of world population. The religious customs of the Russian culture are not the same as American religious customs but very similar. Their meet and greet is very much the same but diverse all at the same time. A meet and greet is where you either meet someone that you have never met before or you meet an old friend. Early Russia was not exactly ‘Russia,’ but a collection of cities that gradually coalesced into an empire (ucsf.edu, 2015). Along with the many small settlements of migrating people were small kingdoms looking for more new uncharted and unclaimed land to expand their empires and territories. A settlement that was slightly larger than the rest probably by a different name was established; this larger settlement, now called Moscow, later became the capital of Russia. These small settlements and empires that came together to form one giant democracy that is called led to a more modern and civilized form of living; this was the start in which came to form the modern country that we now know as Russia today. When the country was first established they were a country with a dictatorship form of government that ruled over its people with brute force. But now the people are allowed to voice their opinion and get a say in everything making modern Russia a well established democra cy. Even though Russian is the official spoken language of Russia there are also many minority languages that are spoken as well as a total of three major languages. â€Å"About 100 others are used across the country† (rt.com, 2015). Russian is obviously the most widely known and spoken language in Russia; as it is the official language of Russia. It is estimated that 81% of the people that live in Russia speak Russian. The second major language spoken in Russia is Ukrainian and it is the secondary language as far as the total percentage of people that speak it at a total of 3%. And last but not least is the language Tartar. It is the third and smallest major language. But it is the most widely spoken minority language in Russia as far as minority languages at a total percent of 3.8% or more. Minority languages include but are not limited to: Chuvash, Bashkir, Belarusian, Moldavian, and other various languages 8.1%. Russias ethnic makeup is very vast and unique. The last census stated that there was more than 100 ethnicities within Russia. The Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians), who account for about 85 percent of Russias population (countrystudies.us, 2015). Some of the ethnic percentages are almost the same when they are compared to the linguistic percentages and statistics. Native Russians make up the largest part of the countrys population at 81.5%, while Ukrainian is at 3%, and Tartar 3%. In addition to the ethnicities listed, the minority ethnicities include: Chuvash1.2%, Bashkir 0.9%, Belarusian 0.8%, Moldavian 0.7%, and other various ethnicities 8.1%. There are many religions that are practiced in Russia the main ones are Russian orthodox at 70%, Ukrainian at a total of 3%, and other various religions ranging anywhere from 16%-25% of the total population of Russia. The Russian religion and the religious customs are very different from the western way of doing things, as is the ir view on the rest of the world and other things such as their country and way of doing business with associates. The first time two Russian men meet for the very first time they start off with a vise grip like hand shake that is very, very firm and look each other in the eye. When two very close Russian male friends meet they pat each other on the back and they may possibly hug one another as well. When two Russian woman meet for the very first time they too shake hands bus it is not as aggressive and intense as when two Russian men meet for the first time; But when two Russian women meet and they are very close friends they kiss each other very lightly on the cheeks starting with the left then the right cheek and then the left again. Russians take a great amount of pride in their country and think it is great and everyone else in the world should view it and feel the same way that they feel about their country as well. One last thing that is interesting about the Russian culture is that all names are patronymic this means that the name is passed down from generation to generation. Russia comes in position number nine as far as world population at an approximate total number of 142,470,272 people that live in Russia. The top three largest cities located in the country in terms of population are as follows in descending order: Moscow is not just the capital city of Russia it is also the largest city with a total of 10,381,222 people, Saint Petersburg 5,028,000 there are inhabitants, and finally the third and smallest city out of the top three is Novosibirsk with a total of 1,419,007 people that live here. The ruble or rouble is the currency of the Russian Federation (themoneyconverter.com, 2015). One American United States dollar currency roughly equals just over Sixty one and one half Russian Rubles. To be exact 1 USD equals 61.54 Russian Rubbles. Russia is a very large country with an extensive history and a massive population. It began as many small settlements of people looking to expand their territories that came together to form present day Russia. These people influenced each other in various ways and that is why there are so many different languages spoken, religions practiced, and ethnic groups within Russia. All of these factors come together and intermingle to make the large country we now call Russia. Bibliography: ucsf.edu (2015) A Brief History of Russia Retrieved on February 25 from: http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/russia_guide/historyofrussia.htm kwintessential.co.uk (2014) Russia Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette Retrieved on February 25 from: http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/russia-country-profile.html rt.com (2015) Basic facts about Russia: Language Retrieved on February 25 from: http://russiapedia.rt.com/basic-facts-about-russia/language/ geonames.org (2015) Russia Largest Cities Retrieved on February 25 from: http://www.geonames.org/RU/largest-cities-in-russia.html aneki.com (2014) Top 100 Most Populous Countries Retrieved on February 25 from: http://www.aneki.com/top_100_populous.html countrystudies.us (2015) Ethnic Composition Retrieved on February 25 from: http://countrystudies.us/russia/32.htm themoneyconverter.com (2015) Convert Russian Rouble to United States Dollar | RUB to USD Retrieved on February 25 from: http://themoneyconverter.com/RUB/USD.aspx

Technology and Ethics as Depicted in Becketts Waiting for Godot and Vo

Technology and Ethics as Depicted in Beckett's Waiting for Godot and Vonnegut's Slaughterhouse Five After a cursory examination of present day world politics, it seems there exist no sterling examples of society's progression towards utopia, or even a higher state of tolerance or knowledge. It is not that humanity does not seek knowledge or improvement. It is not a fault that curiosity drives society's scientists to explain and improve the world beyond the realm of the philosophers. The fault lies in how easily this motive can be manipulated by the vices of greed, the propaganda of the mass media, the centuries-old, unwavering human thirst for power. It is this desire for power and profit, not the journey in creating new technologies and deducing the mechanisms of life and the universe, which becomes convoluted and thus halts the growth process, just as a biologist can halt or suspend the process of life, of dividing cells, by a simple chemical treatment of colchicine. Though the treatment of cells with a solution of colchicine is meant to preserve the cells in a state that can be studied, after this treatment they are no longer viable. They cannot continue their mitotic or meiotic divisions; they cannot continue to reproduce, to be continually studied. Theirs is a one-time-only offer. Even with this simple example some say that moral questions arise. Is it really right for humans to kill other living things, no matter how small, to further their own "understanding"? Or is this simply the price, or penance, humanity pays to be able to explain, in somewhat greater detail than was previously possible, the processes, functions, and malfunctions of life? This example, being defined only in terms of dividing ce... ...ime and energy to developing viable treatments for cancer and AIDS, we have scientists who are at the mercy of huge biotech and pharmaceutical companies. We've got scientists developing "The New Pill That Can End Aging" (Reader's Digest, November 2003) along with Viagra and Propecia, pills for impotent and balding men. Do we see a little misdirection of effort? Yes. Aging, impotence, and hair loss are not threatening an entire population with imminent death, like the AIDS epidemic in Africa. Aging and impotence have not stricken the child population like leukemia. We must start to care about what's really important, we must consider all of the body and mind as we improve technology, and we must think about its implications for future generations. At that time, technology will have been put to its fullest use and will easily go hand in hand with human values.

Abrams and Tintern Abbey Essay -- Essays Papers

Abrams and Tintern Abbey In his essay, "Structure and Style in the Greater Romantic Lyric," critic M.H.Abrams describes a paradigm for the longer Romantic lyric of which Wordsworth's "Lines written a few miles above Tintern Abbey" is an example. First, some of the poems are either identified as odes in the title, or, as Abrams states "approach the ode in having lyric magnitude and a serious subject, feelingfully meditated." (201) The narrator of "Tintern Abbey" expresses deep sensations as he views a landscape familiar from his youth, the emotions and memories evoked lead to wider moral and philosophical cogitations. The prototypical lyric, Abrams continues, "present a determinate speaker in a particularized, and usually a localized, outdoor setting." (201) Indeed, Wordsworth's title specifically identifies the site of which the narrator speaks, it is "a few miles above Tintern Abbey, on the banks of the Wye." The narrators of these poems, continues Abrams, speak in "a fluent vernacular which rises easily to a more formal speech, a sustained colloquy, sometimes with himself or with the outer scene, but more frequently with a silent human auditor, present or absent." (201) "Tintern Abbey" begins with an informal statement, a sudden "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings": "Five years have passed; five summers, with the length / Of five long winters! And again I hear / These waters" (1-3); then gradually builds to more studied speech appropriate for philosophical ruminations: "For I have learned / To look on nature, not as in the hour / Of thoughtless youth, but hearing oftentimes / The still, sad music of humanity; / Nor harsh nor grating, though of ample power / to chasten and subdue" (89-94). The narrator is speaking to a... ...e scenes of Nature shared together will be stored in their memories to draw out at a later date to be used as a sort of non-pharmaceutical anti-depressant: "Oh, then, / If solitude, or fear, or pain, or grief, / Should be thy portion, with what healing thoughts / Of tender joy wilt thou remember me, / And these my exhortations!" (143-147) Required Texts W. Wordsworth and S.T. Coleridge. Lyrical Ballads. (1798, 1800, 1802) Ed. R.L. Brett & A.R. Jones. Routledge, 1992. William Wordsworth, The Prelude: 1799, 1805, 1850. Eds. J. Wordsworth, M.H. Abrams & S. Gill. Norton, 1979. William Wordsworth: The major Works. Ed. S. Gill. Oxford, 1984/2000 Thomas Hardy, The Woodlanders. Ed. D. Kramer. Oxford, 2001. Norman Maclean, A River Runs Through It. Chicago, 1989. Neal Stephenson, The Diamond Age; or, A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer. Bantam Reprint, 2000

Demise of the Permian- Triassic Period Essay examples -- Exploratory E

Demise of the Permian- Triassic Period It is well known that there was a mass extinction killing the dinosaurs. However 185 million years before their demise, almost all life on earth was destroyed.1[1] There has long been theories that meteorites are the cause the of the mass extinctions and professor Asish Basu believes he may have found clues that point to space as the cause of the extinction in the Permian- Triassic period.2[2] The Triassic period is during a time when the earth was divided in a giant land mass: pangea, and water. Here there was no separation of continents. The Triassic is when the dinosaurs first started to appear, but long before the notorious Tyrannosaurus Rex dominated the terrain. At this time the dinosaurs were just a small part of the many animals that wandered the earth and were by no means, the large dominant, creatures that come to ones mind today. However the marker of this period is an extinction of the animals in the Permian period. The Permian period is known for the abundance of flora and the major changes in landscape including the formation of the Appalachian Mountains.3[3] Most notably is the giant fern: glossopteris. However at the end of the period, during the time of the extinction, it too disappeared.4[4] Professor Basu and his colleagues found fragments of chondritic minerals with mineral compositions that do not occur on earth, in Antarictica. These minerals have very similar chemical composition to minerals found in Meishan China. Because such similar extra-terrestrial minerals have been discovered in two geographically distant places, there is evidence that a meteor struck the earth and the dust that covered the land was significant enough to co... ... If it was a meteor it could give new insight to what kind of meteor it was and how it killed almost an entire planet’s living organisms. Either way, this evidence should not be taken lightly and is a crucial to the world of science. Notes: 1[1] Basu, Asish; Petaev, Michail I.; Poreda, Robert J.; Jacobsen, Stein B.; Becker, Luann, Science: â€Å"Chondritic Meteorite Fragments Associated with the Permian-Triassic Boundary in Antarctica†, Vol 302, Issue 5649, 1388-1392 , 21 November 2003 2[2] Basu 3[3] Encyclopedia. http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/section/Permianp_HistoricalGeologyofthePeriod.asp 4[4] Associate Press. CNN: â€Å"Ancient Meteorite Wiped Out Life† Washington, Nov. 20, 2003 5[5] Basu, 6[6] Associated Press 7[7] Basu, 8[8] Britt, Robert Roy, Science: â€Å"Controversial New Claim in Death-by-Meteor Case†, 20 November 2003 9[9] Britt 10[10] Britt

Understand how to plan work and be accountable to others

1.1 – Outline guidelines, procedures codes of practice relevant to personal work – The procedures, guidelines and codes of practice relevant to work are: Procedures: Reporting of accidents at work, fire drills, and reporting absence from work as well as first aid procedures. Codes of practice: Good customer service, quality assurance, freedom of information and privacy of personal data. Guidelines: How to answer the phone, dress code, how to handle email, how to store and retrieve information, how to use office equipment and ensure any actions reduce risk to health and safety Guidelines, procedures and codes of practice that relate to personal work are very important as each of them gives information on how to perform the job effectively and safely. Failing to follow these could potentially hurt someone or even more cause problems for the company.1.2 – Explain the purpose of planning work, and being accountable to others for own work – Planning work can be more efficient. Setting priorities in order to do the most important things first is a good way to keep on top of deadlines. If we are accountable to others for our own work then each step can be examined to see that your work is up to standard. It also gives more responsibility for the work being done as it shows the person setting it trusts you with the work.1.3 – Explain the purpose and benefits of agreeing realistic targets for work – The purpose for agreeing realistic targets for work is to keep everyone on task and focused on what work has been set, this way everyone can work more effectively and reach targets instead of struggling. The benefits of this includes being fast and reliable with completing the tasks at hand.1.4 – Explain how to agree realistic targets  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The targets being agreed to must be realistic so that the person doing the job has a good chance of completing them, this will allow the person to work without stress. However if the targets are set too high then the person trying to complete the job will feel under pressure and if the targets are too low then it will eventually get boring and it wouldn’t help you develop  anything out of it.1.5 – Describe ways of planning work to meet agreed deadlines – A good way to meet any agreed deadlines would be to make a list of work that needs to be done with any required dates for completion and prioritise the order is most important. It’s also a good idea to check that you have all the information and resources you need to complete the tasks.1.6 – Explain the purpose of keeping other people informed about progress – It’s important to keep other people informed about the progress of work being done because if there is any problem to meet my deadlines then then you can turn to someone for advice and help to reprioritise the work. As well it is important because the person the work is for can miss their deadlines if itâ €™s not completed on time.1.7 – Explain the purpose and benefits of letting other people know work plans need to be changed – The purpose of letting other people know work plans need to be changed is because they need to know about changes because it may affect their other work and it allows them to make alternate arrangements for the work to be done if necessary.1.8 – Describe types of problems that may occur during work – The types of problem that can occur during work are:  · Equipment breaking.  · Interruptions; such as colleagues asking things.  · Not being kept informed or provided with the information needed to complete the job.  · Absence of other colleagues.1.9 – Describe ways of seeking assistance with getting help to resolve problems – A way to get assistance with resolving any problems could be to report them to either a colleague/manager to see if they have any advice on how it can be solved as they might have more e xperience. However if nobody could help you, you can also use the company’s website or internal intranet site to see if there is any guidance on there to solving any problem you may have.1.10 – Explain the purpose and benefits of recognising and learning from mistakes – The purpose of recognising and learning from mistakes it to make sure you don’t make them again, people will recognise the mistake and then will be in a position to try and correct it. Other people could also help to ensure that the same mistake isn’t made again by providing extra support. Also it is a lesson for the future, which can be taken away to  other places.

Data Warehouses & Data Mining

DATA WAREHOUSES & DATA MINING Term-Paper In Management Support System [pic] Submitted By:Submitted To: Chitransh NamanAnita Ma’am A22-JK903Lecturer 10900100MSS ABSTRACT :- Collection of integrated, subject-oriented, time-variant and non-volatile data in support of managements decision making process. Described as the â€Å"single point of truth†, the â€Å"corporate memory†, the sole historical register of virtually all transactions that occur in the life of an organization.A fundamental concept of a data warehouse is the distinction between data and information. Data is composed of observable and recordable facts that are often found in operational or transactional systems. At Rutgers, these systems include the registrar’s data on students (widely known as the SRDB), human resource and payroll databases, course scheduling data, and data on financial aid. In a data warehouse environment, data only comes to have value to end-users when it is organized and p resented as information.Information is an integrated collection of facts and is used as the basis for decision-making. For example, an academic unit needs to have diachronic information about its extent of instructional output of its different faculty members to gauge if it is becoming more or less reliant on part-time faculty. [pic] INTRODUCTION :- â€Å"The data warehouse is always a physically separate store of data transformed from the application data found in the operational environment†. Data entering the data warehouse comes from operational environment in almost every case.Data warehousing provides architectures and tools for business executives to syste-matically organize ,understand ,and use their data to make stragetic decisions. A large number of organizations have found that data warehouse systems are valuable tools in today’s competive,fast-evolving world. In the last several years ,many firms have spent millions of dollars in building enterprise wide da ta warehouses. Many people feel that with competition mounting in every industry ,data warehousing is the latest must have marketing weapon –a way to keep customers by learning more about their needs.Data warehouses have been defined in many ways,making it difficult to formulate a rigorous definition. Loosely speaking , a data warehouse refers to a database that is maintened separately from an organization,s operational databases. Data warehouse systems allow for integration of a variety of applications systems . They support information processing by providing a solid platform of consolidated historical data for analysis. Data warehousing is a more formalised methodology of these techniques.For example, many sales analysis systems and executive information systems (EIS) get their data from summary files rather then operational transaction files. The method of using summary files instead of operational data is in essence what data warehousing is allabout. Some data warehousin g tools neglect the importance of modelling and building a datawarehouse and focus on the storage and retrieval of data only. These tools might havestrong analytical facilities, but lack the qualities you need to build and maintain a corporatewide data warehouse.These tools belong on the PC rather than the host. Your corporate wide (or division wide) data warehouse needs to be scalable, secure, openand, above all, suitable for publication. NEED OF DATA WAREHOUSE :- Missing data: Decision support requires historical data which operational DBs do not typically maintain Data Consolidation: DS requires consolidation (aggregation, summarization) of data from heterogeneous sources: operational DBs, external sources Data quality: Different sources typically use inconsistent data representations, codes and formats which have to be reconciled. pic] DATA WAREHOUSE ARCHITECTURE :- [pic] Components :- †¢ OPERATIONAL DATA WAREHOUSE ( for the DW is supplied from mainframe operational data he ld in first generation hierarchical and network databases, departmental data held in proprietary file systems, private data held on workstaions and private serves and external systems such as the Internet, commercially available DB, or DB assoicated with and organization’s suppliers or customers †¢ OPERATIONAL DATABASE( is a repository of current and integrated operational data used for analysis.It is often structured and supplied with data in the same way as the data warehouse, but may in fact simply act as a staging area for data to be moved into the warehouse †¢ LOAD MANAGER ( also called the frontend component, it performance all the operations associated with the extraction and loading of data into the warehouse. These operations include simple transformations of the data to prepare the data for entry into the warehouse WAREHOUSE MANAGER ( performs all the operations associated with the management of the data in the warehouse. The operations performed by this c omponent include analysis of data to ensure consistency, transformation and merging of source data, creation of indexes and views, generation of denormalizations and aggregations, and archiving and backing-up data. †¢ QUERY MANAGER( also called backend component, it performs all the operations associated with the management of user queries.The operations performed by this component include directing queries to the appropriate tables and scheduling the execution of queries. . END-USER ACCESS TOOLS( can be categorized into five main groups: data reporting and query tools, application development tools, executive information system (EIS) tools, online analytical processing (OLAP) tools, and data mining tools. DATA MART :- It is a subset of a data warehouse that supports the requirements of particular department or business function.The characteristics that differentiate data marts and data warehouses include: †¢ a data mart focuses on only the requirements of users associated with one department or business function †¢ as data marts contain less data compared with data warehouses, data marts are more easily understood and navigated †¢ data marts do not normally contain detailed operational data, unlike data warehouse. pic] META DATA:- Metadata is about controlling the quality of data entering the data stream. Batch processes can be run to address data degradation or changes to data policy. Metadata policies are enhance by using metadata repositories. IMPORTANCE OF META DATA :- The integration of meta-data, that is †data about data† †¢ Meta-data is used for a variety of purposes and the management of it is a critical issue in achieving a fully integrated data warehouse †¢ The major purpose of meta-data is to show the pathway back to where the data began, so that the warehouse administrators know the history of any item in the warehouse †¢ The meta-data associated with data transformation and loading must describe the source data and any changes that were made to the data †¢ The meta-data associated with data management describes the data as it is stored in the warehouse †¢ The meta-data is required by the query manager to generate appropriate queries, also is associated with the user of queries †¢ The major integration issue is how to synchronize the various types of meta-data use throughout the data warehouse. The challenge is to synchronize meta-data between different products from different vendors using different meta-data stores †¢ Two major standards for meta-data and modeling in the areas of data warehousing and component-based development-MDC(Meta Data Coalition) and OMG(Object Management Group) †¢ a data warehouse requires tools to support the administration and management of such complex enviroment. †¢ for the various types of meta-data and the day-to-day operations of the data warehouse, the administration and management tools must be capable of supportin g those tasks: †¢ monitoring data loading from multiple sources data quality and integrity checks †¢ managing and updating meta-data †¢ monitoring database performance to ensure efficient query response times and resource utilization. [pic] [pic] DATA WAREHOUSING PROCESSES :- The process of extracting data from source systems and bring it into the data warehouse is commonly called ELT, which stands for extraction, transformation, and loading. In addition, after the data warehouse (detailed data) is created, several data warehousing processes that are relevant to implementing and using the data warehouse are needed, which include data summarization, data warehouse maintenance. Extraction in Data Warehouse :-Extraction is the operation of extracting data from a source system for future use in a data warehouseenvironment. This is the first step of the ETL process. After extraction, data can be transformed and loaded into the data warehouse. Extraction process does not ne ed involve complex algebraic database operations, such as join and aggregate functions. Its focus is determining which data needs to be extracted, and bring the data into the data warehouse, specifically, to the staging area. The data has to be extracted normally not only once, but several times in a periodic manner to supply all changed data to the data warehouse and keep it up-to-date.Thus, data extraction is not only used in the process of building the data warehouse, but also in the process of maintaining the data warehouse. Every often, entire documents or tables from the data sources are extracted to the data warehouse or staging area, and the data completely contain whole information from the data sources. There are two kinds of logic extraction methods in data warehousing. Full Extraction :- The data is extracted completely from the data sources. As this extraction reflects all the data currently available on the data source, there is no need to keep track of changes to the data source since the last successful extraction. The source data will be provided as-is and no additional logic information is necessary on the source site. Incremental Extraction :-At a specific point in time, only the data that has changed since a well-defined event back in history will be extracted. The event may be the last time of extraction or a more complex business event like the last sale day of a fiscal period. This information can be either provided by the source data itself, or a change table where an appropriate additional mechanism keeps track of the changes besides the originating transaction. in most case, using the latter method means adding extraction logic to the data source. For the independence of data sources, many data warehouses do not use any change-capture technique as part of the extraction process, instead, use full extraction logic.After full extracting, the entire extracted data from the data sources can be compared with the previous extracted data to identify the changed data. Unfortunately, for many source systems, identifying the recently modified data may be difficult or intrusive to the operation of the data source. Change Data Capture is typically the most challenging technical issue in data extraction. [pic] DATA MINING :- Data Mining is the process of discovering new correlations, patterns, and trends by digging into (mining) large amounts of data stored in warehouses, using artificial intelligence, statistical and mathematical techniques. Data mining can also be defined as the process of extracting knowledge hidden from large volumes of raw data i. e. he nontrivial extraction of implicit, previously unknown, and potentially useful information from data. The alternative name of Data Mining is Knowledge discovery (mining) in databases (KDD), knowledge extraction, data/pattern analysis, etc. The importance of collecting data thai reflect your business or scientific activities to achieve competitive advantage is widely recog nized now. Powerful systems for collecting data and managing it in large databases are in place in all large and mid-range companies. [pic] How Data Mining Works :- While large-scale information technology has been evolving separate transaction and analytical systems, data mining provides the link between the two.Data mining software analyzes relationships and patterns in stored transaction data based on open-ended user queries. Several types of analytical software are available: statistical, machine learning, and neural networks. Generally, any of four types of relationships are sought: Classes: Stored data is used to locate data in predetermined groups. For example, a restaurant chain could mine customer purchase data to determine when customers visit and what they typically order. This information could be used to increase traffic by having daily specials. Clusters: Data items are grouped according to logical relationships or consumer preferences. For example, data can be mined t o identify market segments or consumer affinities.Associations: Data can be mined to identify associations. The beer-diaper example is an example of associative mining. Sequential patterns: Data is mined to anticipate behavior patterns and trends. For example, an otitdoor equipment retailer could predict the likelihood of a backpack being purchased based on a consumer's purchase of sleeping bags and hiking shoes. DATA MINING MODELS :- 1. Predictive Model Prediction a. determining how certain attributes will behave in the future Regression b. mapping of data item to real valued prediction variable Classification c. categorization of data based on combinations of attributes Time Series analysis xamining values of attributes with respect to time 2. Descriptive Model Clustering most closely data clubbed together into clusters Data Summarization extracting representative information about database Association Rules associativity defined between data items to form relationship Sequence Di scovery it is used to determine sequential patterns in data based on time sequence of action [pic] APPLICATIONS OF DATA WAREHOUSE :- Exploiting Data for Business Decisions The value of a decision support system depends on its ability to provide the decision-maker with relevant information that can be acted upon at an appropriate time. This means that the information needs to be: Applicable.The information must be current, pertinent to the field of interest and at the correct level of detail to highlight any potential issues or benefits. Conclusive. The information must be sufficient for the decision-maker to derive actions that will bring benefit to the organisation. Timely. The information must be available in a time frame that allows decisions to be effective. Decision Support through Data Warehousing One approach to creating a decision support system is to implement a data warehouse, which integrates existing sources of data with accessible data analysis techniques. An organisati on’s data sources are typically departmental or functional databases that have evolved to service specific and localised requirements.Integrating such highly focussed resources for decision support at the enterprise level requires the addition of other functional capabilities: Fast query handling. Data sources are normally optimised for data storage and processing, not for their speed of response to queries. Increased data depth. Many business conclusions are based on the comparison of current data with historical data. Data sources are normally focussed on the present and so lack this depth. Business language support. The decision-maker will typically have a background in business or management, not in database programming. It is important that such a person can request information using words and not syntax. [pic]The proliferation of data warehouses is highlighted by the â€Å"customer loyalty† schemes that are now run by many leading retailers and airlines. These sc hemes illustrate the potential of the data warehouse for â€Å"micromarketing† and profitability calculations, but there are other applications of equal value, such as: Stock control Product category management Basket analysis Fraud analysis All of these applications offer a direct payback to the customer by facilitating the identification of areas that require attention. This payback, especially in the fields of fraud analysis and stock control, can be of high and immediate value. APPLICATIONS OF DATA MINING:- †¢ Banking: loan/credit card approval †¢ predict good customers based on old customers †¢ Customer relationship management: identify those who are likely to leave for a competitor. †¢ Targeted marketing: †¢ identify likely responders to promotions †¢ Fraud detection: telecommunications, financial transactions †¢ from an online stream of event identify fraudulent events †¢ Manufacturing and production: †¢ automatically adjust knobs when process parameter changes †¢ Medicine: disease outcome, effectiveness of treatments †¢ analyze patient disease history: find relationship between diseases †¢ Molecular/Pharmaceutical: †¢ identify new drugs †¢ Scientific data analysis: †¢ identify new galaxies by searching for sub clusters †¢ Web site/store design and promotion: find affinity of visitor to pages and modify layout. [pic] CONCLUSION :- What we are seeing is two-fold depending on the retailer's strategy: 1) Most retailers build data warehouses to target specific markets and customer segments. They're trying to know their customers. It all starts with CDI – customer data integration. By starting with CDI, the retailers can build the DW around the customer. 2) On the other side — there are retailers who have no idea who their customers are, or feel they don’t need to†¦. the world is their customer and low prices will keep the worldloyal. They use the ir data warehouse to control inventory and negotiate with suppliers.The future will bring real time data warehouse updates†¦with the ability to give the retailer an minute to minute view of what is going on in a retail location†¦and take action either manually or through a condition triggered by the data warehouse data†¦ The future belongs to those who: 1) Possess knowledge of the Customer and 2) Effectively use that knowledge†¦ REFERENCES :- 1. Mining interesting knowledge from weblogs: a survey – Federico Michele Facca, Pier Luca lanzi. http://software. techrepublic. com. com/abstract. aspx http://en. wikipedia. org/ http://msdn. microsoft. com/ Google Books Google Images Google Search www. seminarprojects. com Self =========================================================

Types of Budget

History of Indian Budget India's first Finance Minister Sir R. K. Shanmugham Chetty, presented the first Finance Budget of independent India on November 26, 1947. Since then, 28 differentUnion  Finance  Ministers have been presenting the budget year after year. Initially, major attention was paid towards the agriculture sector but as the economy evolved, the focus shifted from agriculture to other sectors like industrial, financial etc. During the early the fifties, Indian budget highlights revolved around the public sector and public finance and hence, back then – taxation, inflation, public savings etc were much talked about topics.This trend continued till the finance budget 1985-86. The change in the approach began with Mr. Manmohan Singh who served as the Union Finance Minister under the leadership of Mr. P. V. Narsimha Rao. Mr. Singh was instrumental in headstarting the new phase of economic liberalization. He reduced the control of Government over public sector unit s through disinvestment. The liberalization process which he started years back is still followed and is seen in interim budget and Indian  budget  announcements  every year.This year also live union budget 2011 will be announced by Pranab Mukherjee. Facts Bite * First Finance Minister: Shanmugham Chetty * Number of Finance Minister Since Independence: 28 * Maximum Number of Budgets Presented by: Morarji Desai * Economic Liberalization Started by: Mr. Manmohan Singh ( Finance Minister 1991) * Current Finance Minister: Mr. P. Chidambaram Explain the different types of budgets in detail, with the help of suitable examples. In every business planning is the most important function to perform. Planning of different firms depends upon so many factors.Planning is done for comparing the actual performance with standard performance. Budgets are also prepared in advance. Budgets are prepared to check the availability of finance according to the demand of project. So budgetary control i s also essential tool of management to control cost and maximizes profits. Meaning of budget: A budget is a detail plan of operations for a specific period of time. In the present era everyone is with the term budget because it essential in life. A budget is prepared for the effective utilization of resources, which will help in achieving the set objectives.Budgets are also very important in individual life, as it is important in business firms. The following are the essential of budget: (a) It is prepared in advance and is based on future plan of action. (b) It relates to a future period and is based on objectives to be attained. (c) It is a statement expressed in monetary or physical unit prepared for the formulation of policy. Types of budgets. 1. Functional basis of budgets. a. Sales budget: Sales budget is the primary budget. It is the most important budget to prepare and the other budgets are prepared on the basis of sales budget.In this budget the in charge or expert forecast the future expected sales of the firm. The sales manager is responsible for the accuracy of the budget. The sales budgets may prepare on basis of product, type of customers, salesman, locality etc. for the preparation of sales budget the following things should be take under care like past sales, sales man estimates, plant capacity, raw material, orders in hand, seasonal fluctuations, competition etc. USES: Sales budget is the most important budget while making the overall budget for the organization for a fiscal year.It is important in this sense that how would anybody make fiscal budget for organization if he don't know about how much to sale or what are the organization's sale would be. If you know the sales volume of units of product you want to sale in a fiscal year then you will make production budget according to that sales requirement in mind you will have production information in mind you will purchase raw material, hire labour according to requirements. So if you don't k now about how much you want to sale then how would you budget other things and how would you compare your performance at the end of fiscal year. . Production budget: After preparing sales budget the next budget will be production budget. In this budget works manager prepare schedule of production by breaking large production in small units to fulfill the target production. A properly operated budgets leads to inventory control, improved maintenance of production schedules and production targets. Suppose, if the estimated opening stock is 5000 units and estimated sales are 25000 units and closing stock of the product is 3000 units the estimated production will be 25000 + 3000 – 5000 =23000 units (sales + closing stock – opening stock).USES: A production budget is an accounting procedure used to both record and propose manufacturing supply expenses. Keeping an organized production budget ensures that the supply of raw materials to the production line continues uninterrup ted and meets consumer demand. Maintaining a detailed post-purchasing production budget also helps to account for material losses due to shrinkage. b. Material budget: In the production budget material is the first requirement to be considered. Materials are basically divided into two categories as direct and indirect material.It includes the preparation of estimates of different types of the raw material needed for various products and purchasing raw material in required number at a required time. There are few factors which should be taken under care like requirement of raw material; company’s stocking policies, price trend, and cost of raw material. USES: Schedule showing how much material will be required for production and how much material must be bought to meet this production requirement. The purchase depends on both expected usage of materials and inventory levels.For example, assume expected production of 790 units, 3 lbs. of material needed per unit, desired ending inventory of material 216 lbs. , beginning inventory of material 237 lbs. , and unit cost per lb. of $2. Then lbs. of material to be purchased and purchase cost follow: Labour budget: labour is an important factor in every production organization. Labour plays an important role in converting raw material into finished product. The labour requirement budgets prepared on basis of production budget. Labour may be of two types direct and indirect labour.In this budget company has to budget the required number of hours and the expected pay scales of the employees. This budget gives information about personnel specifications for the job for which workers are to be recruited, the degree of skill and experience required and rates of pay. USES: The direct labor budget is typically presented in either a monthly or quarterly format. The basic calculation used by the direct labor budget is to import the number of units of production from the production budget, and to multiply this by the stand ard number of labor hours for each unit.This yields a subtotal of the direct labor hours needed to meet the production target. You can also add more hours to account for production inefficiencies, which increases the amount of direct labor hours. Then multiply the total number of direct labor hours by the fully  burdened  direct labor cost per hour, to arrive at the total cost of direct labor. e. Manufacturing Overhead budgets: this budget gives the works overhead expenses to be incurred in a budget period to achieve the production target. The cost of indirect material, indirect labour etc can be calculated with the help of this budget.For making proper control it can be divided into departmental overhead budget. Variable expenses are estimated on the basis of the budgeted output because these expenses are bound to change with the change in output. USES: The manufacturing overhead budget show the expected manufacturing over head costs for the budget period. The budget distinguis hes between variable and fixed overhead costs. Companies fluctuate with production volume on the basis of the following rates per direct labor hour: indirect materials $1. 00, indirect labor $1. 0, utilities $0. 40, and maintenance $0. 20. Thus, for 6,200 direct labor hours budgeted indirect materials are $6,200 (6,200 x $1), and budgeted indirect labor is $8,680 (6,200 x $1. 40). The company recognizes that some maintenance is fixed. The amounts reported for fixed cost are assumed. f. Administration Expenses budget: The budget covers the expenses incurred in framing policies, directing the organization and controlling the business operations. In budget an estimate of expenses is prepared regarding central office and of management salaries.The budget may be prepared at department level for effectiveness in budgeting system. The budget can be prepared with the past experience and anticipated changes. USES: The selling and administrative expense budget is comprised of the budgets of a ll non-manufacturing departments, such as the sales, marketing, accounting, engineering, and facilities departments. In aggregate, this budget can rival the size of the  production budget, and so is worthy of considerable attention. The selling and administrative expense budget is typically presented in either a monthly or quarterly format.It may also be split up into segments for a separate sales and marketing budget and a separate administration budget. G. Selling and Distribution budgets: This expense is related to the selling and distribution of material. In this budget experts have to plan for the expected selling and distribution expenses of the firm. Certain items of selling and distribution costs as cost of transportation, salesman salaries etc. USES: The selling and administrative expense budget is comprised of the budgets of all non-manufacturing departments, such as the sales, marketing, accounting, engineering, and facilities departments.In aggregate, this budget can r ival the size of the  production budget, and so is worthy of considerable attention. The selling and administrative expense budget is typically presented in either a monthly or quarterly format. It may also be split up into segments for a separate sales and marketing budget and a separate administration budget. h. Cash budget: this budget is prepared to predict the inflow and outflow of cash during the budget period. In cash receipt we consider cash sales, credit collection and other receipts in cash payments we consider cash payments, tax payable, dividend payable etc.Without cash organizations cannot work so prediction about cash is very important. A cash budget makes provision for a minimum cash balance which will be available at all times. USES: After a company has prepared its operating budget, it will often draw up a separate cash budget as a means of tracking income and cash expenditures throughout the year. Such a budget has a number of practical uses, all of which center around being able to accurately predict when the company will be flush and when cash flow may be restricted. 2. On the basis of flexibility a.Fixed budget: This is the rigid budget and it is drawn on the assumption that there will be no change in the budgeted time period. A fixed budget will be helpful only when actual level of activity is equal to budgeted level of activities. According to charted institute of management accountants. † A fixed budget is defined as a budget designed to remain unchanged irrespective of activity actually attained. b. Flexible budget: It is also called as variable budget. A flexible budget gives different budgeted costs for different budgeted costs for different levels of activities.This budget is applicable in where activity levels vary from period to period. Where the business is new and it is difficult to predict. Where industry is influenced by change in fashion. Where there are changes in sales. 3. On the basis of period: a. Long time budget s: long-term budgets are prepared for those organizations, which deal in regular product line. Here organizations are not suppose to change their proceedings in short time periods. b. Short time budgets: Short-term budgets are prepared for small time periods which work for seasonal product line. Here products may change in near future.